前 言

　　清末至民國時期，隨著社會形態(tài)的深刻變化和西方園林文化對中國的影響，以公園的大量出現(xiàn)為主要特征，中國園林的歷史走向進入一個轉(zhuǎn)折時期。1949年新中國成立以來，我國園林綠化事業(yè)發(fā)展迅速，形成了城鄉(xiāng)園林蓬勃發(fā)展的新格局。改革開放以來，在快速發(fā)展的城鄉(xiāng)一體化進程中，園林作為城市基礎設施在改善生態(tài)環(huán)境、傳承歷史文脈、美化城市景觀、促進文化交流、發(fā)揮游憩功能、帶動區(qū)域旅游、推動經(jīng)濟發(fā)展等方面發(fā)揮了巨大的作用，中國園林進入了快速、健康、全面發(fā)展的新階段。?

　　PREFACE?

　　During the pcriod of the late Qing dynasty and republic China,influenced by profound social changes and wes ern gardens,Chinese gardens and parks entered a new stage of development with a rise in public parks.Ever since 1949 when the PRC was founded,parks and green space have developed rapidly in both urban and rural areas.Since the reform and opening up,during the process of rapid urbanization,parks and green space as part of the city’s infrastructure plays a key huge role in improving en ironment passing down culture,beatifying the city,facilitating cultural exchanges and boosting regional tourism and economic development,Chinese parks and green space embrace a new stage of rapid,sound and comprehensive development.?

　　中國近代園林?

　　Contemporary Chinese Gardens?

　　受社會變革和西方文化的影響，中國近代園林成為中國園林發(fā)展歷程中的轉(zhuǎn)折期。近代園林在承襲了中國古典園林優(yōu)秀傳統(tǒng)的基礎上，進入了以誠實公園建設為標志的新階段。這一時期古典園林陸續(xù)向公眾開放，興建新的公共園林，出現(xiàn)了“中西合璧”和西方風格的園林。?

　　Influenced by social changes and western culture,premodern gardens were considered as transitions in the history of Chinese gardens.Based on the fine traditions of the classical Chinese gardens,premodern gardens entered a new stage featured by urban parks.During this period,classical Chinese gardens have been gardually opened to the public,public gardens and parks have been built up, and gardens of western and Chinese style appeared.?

　　西風東漸 文化交流?

　　鴉片戰(zhàn)爭后，沿海租界地區(qū)興建了西方風格園林。受西方文化的影響，這一時期西方園林元素開始出現(xiàn)在中國私家園林之中，出現(xiàn)了營業(yè)性私園。與此同時，隨著現(xiàn)代學校的創(chuàng)設與地方衙署等性質(zhì)的改變，出現(xiàn)了校園、衙署等一些新的園林類型。?

　　After the Opium war,gardens of western style have been built up in coastal concessions.Influenced by western culture,private gardens of this period began to employ elements of western gardens and profit-making gardens appeared.Meanwhile,due to the establishment of schools and changed nature of government office buildings,schools and government office buildings emerged as new forms of gardens.?

　　承前啟后 公園發(fā)展?

　　辛亥革命后，在民國政府的主導下，城市公共事業(yè)得以發(fā)展?；始覉@林陸續(xù)向公眾開放，完成了從禁苑到公園的功能轉(zhuǎn)換。國人開始自主興建縣有公共開放性質(zhì)的園林，成為首批近代城市公園，這樣一種向公眾開放的城市公園的誕生，是近代中國園林發(fā)展進程中的重要標志。?

　　After 1911 Revolution,the government of republic China led the development of the urban public?

　　China led the development of the urban public utilities.Royal gardens have been gradually opened to the public,transforming from serving the royal to serving the public.Across the country,parks have been built up to be opened to the public.These parks have been the first urban parks in China and they marked an important stage in the history of Chinese gardens.?

　　中國現(xiàn)代園林?

　　Modern Chinese Parks and Landscape?

　　1949年中華人民共和國成立后，毛澤東主席發(fā)出“綠化祖國”的號召，隨著廣泛的舊城改造和新城建設，城市園林綠化納入國民經(jīng)濟發(fā)展綱要與城市總體規(guī)劃建設之中，以北京為例，建國初期一次性劃撥42塊土地用于公園綠地建設。地方園林綠化建設呈現(xiàn)規(guī)模，改善了城市面貌。1978年改革開放后，第三次全國城市園林綠化工作會議召開，各地園林建設蓬勃開展，園林的功能不斷提升，內(nèi)涵不斷擴大，文化不斷豐富、類型不斷多樣，園林成為改善人居環(huán)境、維護城市生態(tài)的重要基礎設施。2001年國務院召開了全國城市綠化工作會議并下發(fā)了《國務院關于加強城市綠化建設的通知》，園林建設進入大繁榮、大發(fā)展時期。?

　　After 1949 when the PRC was founded in 1949,Chairman Mao’s called for “greening the county”.Many cities have undergone renovations and developments,and against this backdrop,urban parks and greening have been incorporated into the country’s economic development plan and the overall blueprint for city development.Take Beijing city as an example.In the early stage of the birth of the PRC,42 plots of land have been allocated for parks.Large-scale constructions of green space and parks have transformed the out look of cities.In 1978 after the policy of reform and opening up was introduced,the Third National Conference on Urban Parks and Greening was held.As a result,parks and green space construction was in full seing across the country.With more functions,enriched cultural contents and diverse styles,parks and green space serve as an important infrastructure to improve people’s living environment and to protect the city’s eco-environment.In 2001,the State Council held a conference on the nation’s urban greenery and issued the Notice of State Council on Strengthening Urban Greeneries,leading to a surge in parks and green space construcions.?

　　公園建設 日新月異?

　　建國以來，各地歷史名園得以保護與修復，并陸續(xù)對公眾開放。同時各地興建了一批以人民公園、解放公園為代表的城市綜合性公園。改革開放以來，人們對物質(zhì)生活和精神生活質(zhì)量提出更高的要求，歷史名園得到更加嚴格的保護，以頤和園、天壇為代表的皇家園林與以蘇州園林為代表的私家園林列入世界文化遺產(chǎn)名錄。現(xiàn)代城市公園建設數(shù)量大幅增加，功能更加完善，成為城市空間的“綠色客廳”。公園在傳承文化、美化環(huán)境、游憩休閑、科普教育、生態(tài)安全、防災避險等方面發(fā)揮了重要作用。?

　　After the founding of the PRC,the historic famous gardens across the country have been restored and consecutively opened to the public.Meanwhile,many parks of comprehensive functions have been built up nationwide under the name of people’s parks and liberation parks.After reform and opening up, the historic famous gardens have been preserved better in response to people’s higher material and spiritual demands.Imperial gardens such as the Summer Palace and Imperial Summer Resort,and private gardens such as Humble Administrator’s Garden in Suzhou have been enlisted into the World Cultural Heritage.Modern urban parks enjoys a boost in their number,category and functions,taking on the role of the “l(fā)iving room of city”.The parks plays a vital role in providing space for recreational activities,improving ecological environment,passing down culture,disseminating knowledge and preventing disasters.?

　　教育科技 發(fā)展創(chuàng)新?

　　新中國成立以來，隨著園林事業(yè)的快速發(fā)展，在園林科研、學科建設、成果推廣以及技術應用方面取得了令人矚目的成就，園林行業(yè)科研成果先后榮獲多項國家科學進步獎，處辦理一大批園林專著，在理論研究、技術創(chuàng)新、植物栽培、環(huán)境建設等方面取得了豐碩的成果，培養(yǎng)了大批專業(yè)人才，學科教育有了長足發(fā)展，目前全國已有近200所高等院校設立了風景園林（類）專業(yè)。2011年3月國務院學位委員會、教育部公布《學位授予和人才培養(yǎng)學科目錄》“風景園林學”成為國家一級學科。?

　　After the founding of the PRC,with the rapid development of landscape architectural profession,remarkable achievements have been made in parks and landscape research,the landscape architectural discipline development,results promotion,technological innovation and environment protection.The achievements of the profession have consecutively been rewarded the national scientific and technological progress awards and a host of books on the discipline have been published.Headways have also been made in theory research,technological innovation,plant cultivation and environmental protection.The discipline has developed a lot and produced many professional talents.At present,200 colleges and universities have set up the major of landscape architecture.In 2011,the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and the Ministry of Education have jointly issued Degree-granting and Personnel Training Catalog,in which landscape architecture has been made first class discipline.?

前言Preface

　　中國是一個有著五千年悠久歷史的文明古國,鐘靈毓秀的大地山川,積淀深厚的歷史文化,孕育出中國古典園林這樣一個源遠流長/博大精深的園林體系.中國園林是中華民族優(yōu)秀傳統(tǒng)文化的重要組成部分,它以豐富多彩的內(nèi)容和高超的藝術水平在世界造園藝術中獨樹一幟,其獨特的文化精神內(nèi)涵和輝煌的藝術成就為世界所矚目.???????????????

　　China has an ancient civilization with a five-thousand-year history.On this vast and rich land, many outstanding talents emerged and a splendid culture was born, nurturing a time-honored, profound and extensive system of the classical gardens. As an important component of the fine Chinese traditional cultures, the classical gardens secured a unique position in the world’s gardening art with its rich content and appealing artistic charm. The unique cultural and spiritual sense and magnificent artistic achievements of the gardens have gained the classical gardens worldwide attention.

中國園林的生成

Beginnings of the Chinese Gardens?

??? 商周秦漢是中國古典園林從萌芽/產(chǎn)生而逐漸成長的時期,歷經(jīng)千余年.在此時期,造園活動雖然規(guī)模較大,但演進變化較為緩慢,中國園林處于發(fā)展的初期階段.

　　During the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han period, the classical Chinese gardens surfaced, came into being and gradually developed. In this millennium, gardens were contructed on a large scale, but their style has evolved relatively slowly, given that, this period is considered as the early stage of the classical gardens.

　　天地山川? 園林尋蹤

　　“囿”、“圃”、“臺”是中國園林的原始形態(tài)。人們山水審美觀念的確立、天人合一思想、君子比德思想和神仙思想等意識形態(tài)方面的因素，促成了生成期中國古典園林的發(fā)展。

　　During the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han period, the classical Chinese gardens surfaced, came into being and gradually developed. In this millennium, gardens were contructed on a large scale, but their style has evolved relatively slowly, given that, this period is considered as the early stage of the classical gardens.

　　崇臺峻基? 苑囿之漸

　　公園前11世紀的商末周初，王、諸侯、卿、大夫等開始興建離宮別館，出現(xiàn)了規(guī)模較大的囿和臺，如殷紂王的沙丘苑臺和周文王的靈囿、靈臺、靈沼等。

　　In the late Shang and early Zhou period, the 11th century BC to be exact, kings, vassals, officers and scholars started to build palaces and villas for short stays, in which there were many large “yous” and “tai” of “dunes” for King Zhou of Shang and Ling You, Ling Tai and Ling Zhao for King Wen of Zhou.

　　宮苑伊始? 華美恢弘

　　秦、漢是園林發(fā)展的重要階段，相應于中央集權政治體制的確立，出現(xiàn)了宮苑這個園林臨幸，并成為該時期造園活動的主流。這一時期的宮苑規(guī)?；趾?、建筑華美、功能多樣，特別是“一池三山”的山水格局，對后世的皇家造園和都城建設影響深遠。

　　The Qin and Han Dynasties are important stages for the development of gardens. In this period the centralized political system was established, leading to the appearance of imperial palace-gardens, which became the mainstream of the gardens at that time. They were magnificent, luxutious and multi-functional. The structure of “one pond and three mountains” exerted profound influence on the later development of imperial gardens and capital cities.

　　莊園孕育? 私園初現(xiàn)

??? 西漢以來，隨著農(nóng)業(yè)耕作技術的提高，莊園經(jīng)濟快速發(fā)展，貴族、官僚、莊園主等積累了大量財富，開始營建私家園林，并已見諸文獻記載。

　　Ever since the Western Han Dynasty when the farming techniques improved, the manor economy developed quickly. The noblemen, officers and owners of manors amassed huge fortune and began to build private gardens, the records of which can be found in documentations.

中國園林的轉(zhuǎn)折

Transitions of the Chinese Gardens

　　東漢、魏晉南北朝是中國園林發(fā)展中一個承前啟后的轉(zhuǎn)折時期，佛教傳入、道教出現(xiàn)，諸家思想的活躍促進了藝術領域的開拓，對這一時期的中國園林發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了較大的影響?！皥@林”一次開始出現(xiàn)，造園活動不再追求宏大的規(guī)模，取法自然，造園趨于寫實與寫意相結(jié)合，隱逸思想得以充分體現(xiàn)，異彩紛呈，初步形成了皇家、私家、寺觀園林體系。

　　Eastern Han, Wei-Jin and Northern-Southern Dynasties are a transition period. During that period, the introduction of Buddhism, the emergence of Taoism and the boom of various schools of thoughts have injected impetus to the arts development and exerting tremendous influence on the development of Chinese gardens. The word “garden” was first adopted. The size of the garden was not the aim itself any more. The design of the garden was a nature-based combination of realism and romanticism so that a sense of detachment and distance can be generated. It is during this period that a system of imperial gardens, private gardens and temple gardens was established.

　　道法自然寄情山水

　　受儒、釋、道社會思想主流的影響，寄情山水、崇尚隱逸成為社會風尚。人們對大自然風景的審美觀念趨于成熟，山水文化、山水繪圖等藝術得到大發(fā)展，與造園相關的建筑、理水等技術更為進步，觀賞植物普遍引種，中國古代園林的發(fā)展進入轉(zhuǎn)折期

　　Influenced by mainstream social thoughts such as Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, people aspired for intimacy with nature and a secluded life away from worldly concerns and developed a relatively mature aesthetics on nature. Arts like literature and paintings on mountain and water boomed. Gardening-related technologies such as water arrangement and architecture developed tremendously and it became more common to grow ornamental plants. It is on such a backdrop that the classical Chinese gardens enter the transition process.

　　華林仙苑濠濮間想

　　東漢、三國、兩晉、南北朝時期，在北方的鄴城、洛陽和南方的建康，皇家園林較為集中，并開始納入都城的規(guī)劃建設中。皇家園林的功能也從狩獵通神和生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營，逐漸轉(zhuǎn)化為以游賞寄情、棲息為主，園林創(chuàng)作則從模擬神仙世界更多地轉(zhuǎn)向世俗題材。

　　During the Eastern Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin and Northern-Southern period, imperial gardens were concentrated in City Ye in the north, Luo Yang and Jian Kang in the south and the construction of imperial gardens was incorporated into the planning of capital cities. The function of imperial gardens turned away from hunting and production to entertainment, sightseeing and residences and the theme from legends of immortals to real life.

　　佛道盛行? 寺園一體

　　隨著佛道的盛行和佛寺道觀的大量出現(xiàn)，寺觀園林作為一個新的類型迅速發(fā)展，表現(xiàn)為三種形式，一是園林作為寺觀的附園；二是寺觀庭院的園林化；三是寺觀外圍自然環(huán)境的園林化。寺觀園林的興盛對風景名勝的發(fā)展起到了推動作用。

　　As Buddhism and Taoism thrived, many temples emerged and gardens in temples developed rapidly with three major forms: gardens being affiliated to the temples, the courtyard of temples taking the form of gardens or the surroundings of the temples taking the form of gardens. The boom of temple gardens promoted the development of scenery spots.

　　宛若自然? 歸園田居

　　隨著士族、貴族勢力的壯大和士大夫隱逸潮流的風行，私家園林作為一個獨立的類型異軍突起，并出現(xiàn)兩種傾向：一種是以貴族官僚為代表的崇尚華麗的傾向；另一種是以文人名士為代表的追求隱逸和山林泉石之樂的傾向，成為后世文人園林的先聲。在這一時期，城郊山水成為文人雅士游賞聚集的場所。

　　As the noblemen and officer-scholars gained more power and more and more scholars aspired for a detached life away from worldly concerns, private gardens developed as an independent category with two tendencies: one is to pursue luxury and splendor represented by the noblemen and government officers and the other to pursue a detached and natural life free from worldly concerns represented by the scholars, and the gardens of the latter tendency became the foundations of the later scholar gardens. During this period, suburban sceneries served as venues where scholars gathered for entertainment and sightseeing.

　　蘭亭修禊

　　魏晉時期，文人名流經(jīng)常聚會的一些近郊風景瀏覽地，具有了公共園林的性質(zhì)。東晉穆帝永和九年三月三日，王羲之和當時名士孫統(tǒng)、謝安等42人，為過“修禊日”宴集于紹興蘭亭，列坐于曲水兩側(cè)，將酒殤置于清流之上，任其順流而下，停在誰的面前，誰即取飲，彼此相樂。此時期文人名流的雅集盛會和詩文唱和流露出審美趣味，給當時和后世的園林發(fā)展以深遠的影響。

中國園林的繁盛

Golden age For the Chinese Gardens

　　隋唐時代，園林創(chuàng)作達到了一個高峰時期?；始覉@林的“皇家氣派”已經(jīng)完全形成。寺觀園林更加世俗化。私家園林追求個性特征，向文人化的園林創(chuàng)作方向發(fā)展。以詩入園、因畫成景的做法在唐代已漸成熟。

　　In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, creation of gardens has reached an unprecedented level. The imperial gardens vividly illustrated the imperial grandeur, temple gardens became more secularized and the private gardens more characteristic and more closer to the design of scholar gardens. Practices such as dedicating gardens to poems and designing the garden scenery after paintings have matured in the Tang Dynasty.

　　宏大兼容? 詩情畫意

　　隋唐是中國封建社會繁榮鼎盛的時期，政治穩(wěn)定，經(jīng)濟發(fā)達，文化藝術盛極一時，絢麗多彩的文學、史學、建筑、雕塑、繪畫、書法交相輝映，山水畫、山水詩文、山水園林這三個藝術門類得到了進一步的融合，“外師造化，中得心源”的繪畫理論開始深刻影響著園林藝術創(chuàng)作。中國古典園林的發(fā)展達到了繁盛時期。

　　The Sui and Tang Dynasties are prime time of the Chinese feudal societies with a stable political environment, developed economy and splendid art achievements. Influenced by diverse schools in literature, painting and calligraphy, three art strains including the painting, literature and gardening on Shanshui (mountains and water) further developed. The principle of painting that artistic creations should follow the law of nature and also portray what the artist felt deeply influenced gardening arts. In this situation, Chinese gardens booded at that period of time.

　　大唐宮苑? 曲江宴集

　　隋唐時期的皇家園林集中建置在兩京——長安和洛陽。該時期皇家園林的建設數(shù)量之多、規(guī)模之大遠遠超過魏晉南北朝時期，已經(jīng)形成大內(nèi)御苑、行宮御苑、離宮御苑三個各具特色的類別，整體的規(guī)劃設計和藝術水平都有了很大的提升，對后世皇家園林的營建影響深遠。君民在曲江同樂成為長安城市風情的歷史畫卷。

　　In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, imperial gardens were concentrated in two capital cities, Chang’an and Luoyang. Imperial gardens at that time outnumbered and outsized the ones in Wei-Jin and Northern-Southern Dynasties. There were three categories including imperial gardens as imperial palaces, as retreats and as villas for short stays. The overall planning, design and artistic level have been uplifted greatly, exerting a profound influence on the later constructions of imperial gardens. The ruler and the people enjoying life together in Qvjiang was a harmonious scene in Chang’an city.

　　士人清雅? 山池之勝

　　盛唐之世為私家造園的發(fā)展創(chuàng)造了條件。文人參與造園蔚然成風，這一時期的私家園林將更多的詩畫情趣賦予其中，甚至衙署內(nèi)也多有山池花木的點綴，為宋代文人園林的興盛奠定了基礎。

　　The prosperity of the Tang Dynasty has created conditions for the development of private gardens. Poetic sense and artistic charm were included in the gardens. Many scholars have participated in designing gardens, which boasted the senses of poetry and paintings and even in many government officers back then, there were miniature mountains, ponds, flowers and trees as decorations, laying foundation for the boom of scholar gardens in the Song Dynasty.

　　參禪悟道? 建寺名山

　　隋唐時期，寺觀大量興建，寺觀園林與自然山水融為一體。由于寺觀園林本身所具有的開放性，寺觀園林既具有宗教活動的功能，又具有風景游覽的功能，至今仍是我國風景名勝區(qū)和世界遺產(chǎn)地的重要歷史依據(jù)。

　　During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with an increase of temples, temple gardens were better integrated with nature. As the temples were open to public, temple gardens served as not only the venue for religious activities but also places for sightseeing and entertainment. Up till now, they are important sources for the nation’s major national scenic and historic interest area and the world heritage sites.

　　文化繁榮? 海外傳播

??? 唐代的長安是國際性的對外開放城市，外商、外交使節(jié)、留學生、學問僧云集，包括中國園林藝術在內(nèi)的中國文化通過他們傳播海外，影響深遠。

　　Chang’an in the Tang Dynasty was an internationally open city, which attracted many foreign businessmen, diplomatic personnel, students and visiting monks and it is through these people that the Chinese cultures including Chinese gardening cultures were introduced abroad with their influence spread afar.

中國園林的成熟

The Maturity of The Chinese Gardens

　　宋代以來，文化繁榮昌盛，科學技術長足發(fā)展，促成了園林藝術的全面發(fā)展。這一時期，文人參與造園并賦予園林詩情畫意，從這一時期的山水畫與詩詞賦可以看出，文人園林的發(fā)展最為突出，并且影響到皇家園林、寺觀園林的建設。疊石、理水、植物、建筑等造園要素全面提升，園林創(chuàng)作更加重視意境和內(nèi)涵，艮岳就是這一時期的杰出代表，中國古典園林的風格完全成熟。

　　Ever since the Song Dynasty, culture prospered. The progress in science and technology has contributed to the thriving of garden arts. During this period, scholar gardens involved themselves in garden design, adding poetic and artistic touch to the gardens. From the landscape paintings and poetries at that time we can see scholar gardens stood out, influencing imperial gardens and temple gardens. Elements such as pilled-up rocks, water, buildings and plants were upgraded. With a focus on the aroma and cultural sense, the classical Chinese gardens developed a mature style with a typical example being Genyue imperial garden.

　　術業(yè)專攻? 寫意山水

　　宋代文化藝術空前繁榮，園林建筑豐富多樣，園林觀賞花木栽培技術進一步提高，出現(xiàn)了專以疊石為業(yè)的技工，造園技術成熟。這一時期山水畫創(chuàng)作對園林風格產(chǎn)生重要影響，詩畫融入園林，追求園林空間的意境創(chuàng)造。

　　Culture and arts in the Song Dynasty reached a level never seen before. The style of architecture was richer, the flower and plant cultivation techniques further developed and craftsmen on rock-piling emerged, ushering in the stage of maturity of the gardens. In this period, landscape paintings tremendously influenced the garden styles, which aimed to cultivate the cultural aroma and imaginative senses of the garden space.

　　文園興盛? 簡遠精雅

??? 文人園林的興盛促成了中國園林藝術的重大升華。在內(nèi)省的哲學與文學思想影響下，文人園林具有景象簡遠、布局舒朗、天然雅致等特點，體現(xiàn)出人與自然的和諧。

　　The boom of scholar gardens uplifted the artistic level of Chinese gardens. Influenced by the philosophy on self-reflection and the thought of scholars, scholar gardens featured simple scenes, clear layouts, being elegant and natural and reflecting the harmony between man and nature.

　　艮岳瓊林? 鳳凰山色

　　兩宋時期皇家園林集中在東京和臨安兩地。受文人園林的影響，宮苑的建設開始以山水創(chuàng)作自然之趣為主題，出現(xiàn)了艮岳那樣劃時代的寫意山水園作品，在中國園林史上占有重要的位置。

　　During the Song Dynasty, imperial gardens were concentrated in cities of Dongjing and Lin’an. Bearing a heavy imprint of the style of scholar gardens, imperial gardens have shifted to focus on nature as their themes, resulting in epoch-making works such as Genyue imperial garden, which looms large in the history of Chinese gardens.

　　燕山風月? 瓊島春陰

　　遼代升唐幽州為幽都府，立為南京（亦稱燕京，實為陪都），金則繼而擴建為中都，均相應建設皇家宮苑。元于中都的東北郊，以金代離宮大寧宮為中心另建新城，稱大都。元大都都以瓊島為中心的規(guī)劃為明清北京城奠定了基礎，其各類園林建設亦成為明清時期空前興盛的先聲。

　　In the Liao Dynasty, Youzhou was expanded to be Youdufu, and Nanjing (today’s Beijing) was made the capital city. In the Jin Dynasty, the capital city was further expanded to be Zhongdu. Along with the expansion of the capital city came the construction of imperial gardens. In the Yuan Dynasty, in the northeastern suburb of Zhongdu, a new capital centering the resort palace Daqing palace of the Jin Dynasty was built up under the name of Dadu (meaning big capital). The city planning of Dadu of the Yuan Dynasty put Qiongdao at the center, and such planning has laid foundation for the development of Beijing city in the Ming and Qing Dynasty. Gardens of all styles in this period promised a boom of garden construction in the Ming and Qing Dynasty.

　　園林寺觀? 公共游憩

　　這一時期，園林進一步文人化，很多寺觀園林向世人開放，自然山水園林逐步發(fā)展，形成以佛寺名勝為中心的公共游覽地。《東京夢華錄》記載了開封園林開放的情況。

　　During this period, many gardens took on the characteristics of scholar gardens and many temple gardens have been opened to the public. With a gradual development of natural landscaping gardens, temple gardens became temple-centered scenery spots for public visits.

中國園林的集盛

Peak of The Chinese Gardens

　　明清時期是中國古典園林發(fā)展史上的又一個高峰，園林形式更加豐富，造園技藝更加成熟，帝王的南巡北狩，從塞外到江南，促進皇家園林、私家園林和寺觀園林的繁榮，出現(xiàn)了一批不同地域、風格迥異的園林作品，留存至今的許多明清歷史名園被列為世界文化遺產(chǎn)。同時，優(yōu)秀造園家和園林相關論著集中出現(xiàn)。長期積淀的深厚傳統(tǒng)文化，成就了中國古典園林的輝煌。

　　The Ming and Qing Dynasties embraced another peak in the history of classical Chinese gardens as this period witnessed richer garden styles and more mature gardening. The Emperors’ visits to the south and their hunting activities in the north, ranging from frontiers to thesouthern reaches of Yangtze River, contributed to the prosperity of imperial gardens, private gardens and temple gardens. Gardens in different regions with different styles emerged and many famous gardens of the Ming and Qing Dynasties have been enshrined as world culture heritages. Meanwhile, many outstanding garden architects and books on gardens also appeared. Splendid classical Chinese gardens have been attributable to the time honored traditional culture.

　　承德避暑山莊

　　位于河北省承德市北部，是清代皇家園林中最大的一座。始建于康熙四十二年（公元1703年），歷經(jīng)清康熙、雍正、乾隆三朝，耗時八十七年建成。承德避暑山莊大小建筑有120多群組，其中康熙以四字組成36景，乾隆以三字組成36景，即避暑山莊72景。

　　城市發(fā)展? 園林興盛

　　明清時期，城市的數(shù)量和規(guī)模較前代有了更大增長，城市面貌更加繁榮，大規(guī)模的造園帶了城市空間結(jié)構的變化，對城市規(guī)劃和城市休閑地的發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了重要的影響。明清兩代，北京作為當時的政治中心，皇家園林建設進入了高峰時期。與此同時，以江南為代表的經(jīng)濟文化中心，私家園林的造園活動規(guī)?？涨啊?/p>

　　The Ming and Qing Dynasties have seen a boom in the number and scale of the cities, which have further developed. Large-scale garden constructions have brought about changes in urban space structure, impacting city planning and the development of city recreation spaces. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties with Beijing acting as political center, construction of imperial gardens have reached a peak. Meanwhile, economic and cultural centers represented by southern reaches of Yangtze River have embraced an unprecedented scale of private garden constructions.

　　移天縮地? 北國江南

　　這一時期的皇家園林，在建設規(guī)模及藝術造詣上都達到了歷史上的高峰，精湛的造園技藝結(jié)合宏大的園林規(guī)模，充分彰顯了皇家風范。園林的總體規(guī)劃、設計不斷創(chuàng)新，全面引進江南民間的造園技藝，形成了南北藝術的大融糅，出現(xiàn)了避暑山莊、西苑三海、三山五園這些具有里程碑性質(zhì)的、優(yōu)秀的大型園林作品。

　　During this period, imperial gardens have reached summit both in terms of their scale and artistic level. A combination of skilled gardening and grand scale showcased the magnificence of imperial gardens. Constant innovations in the overall planning and design concepts, coupled with the introduction of gardening skills used in private gardens in the southern reaches of Yangtze River have contributed to the integration of southern and northern gardens, which has resulted in the births of outstanding and milestone gardens such as Chengde Imperial Summer Resort, XiyuanSanhai (West Imperial Garden and Three Lakes), and Three Mountains and Five Gardens in Beijing.

　　私園勃興? 百花呈艷

　　明清兩代，民間的造園活動遍及于全國，各地出現(xiàn)了不同風格的園林，形成北方、江南、嶺南、川蜀、閩南、少數(shù)民族等多種地方風格，名園林立，如勺園、清華園、拙政園、余蔭山房、罨畫池、羅布林卡等。

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, private garden constructions swept across the nation with different styles appearing in different regions. The northern region, southern reaches of Yangtze River, regions south of the five Ridges, Sichuan region, southern region of Fujian Province and regions inhabited by minority groups all have different styles of gardens. Many famous gardens have been built, such as Spoon Garden, Qinghua Garden, Humble Administor’s Garden, Yuyin Garden, Yanhuachi Garden and Norbulingka (precious stone garden).

　　園林滲透? 人居雅境

　　明清時期，中國古典園林的理念、布局手法及其元素，滲透在理想居住環(huán)境營造的方方面面，衙署、書院、住宅、祠堂、會館、市肆等，均通過山石水池的點綴、花草樹木的配植和亭閣軒廊的構筑，具有了附屬或局部的園林形態(tài)組合，多具有公共性。

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the concepts layouts and elements of classical Chinese gardens have found their way living environments such as government office buildings, schools, residences, memorial temples, halls, cities and public houses, all of which employed mountain, rock, water and ponds as decorations, planted flowers and trees and built pavilions and halls. The combination of affiliated gardens and partial gardens appeared. Some public gardens, apart from their tradition functions as to provide scholars and citizens with venues to play and relax, also taken on the function as venues for rest and recreational activities.

　　匠心獨運? 名家輩出

??? 明清時期，隨著南北造園活動的日益興盛，涌現(xiàn)出了許多優(yōu)秀的造園世家，造園專著不斷豐富，園林人物多有記載，成為造園極盛期的一個重要標志。 　　

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the boom in garden constructions has led to the peak of scholar gardens. As a result, many outstanding garden architects have emerged. As their experiences accumulated, those scholars and gardens architects have put forward many theories and written books, which are important symbols for the peak of garden art.

　　方外梵剎? 人境壺天

　　明清時期，寺觀營建主體日趨多元，帝王敕建、官署營造和僧人募集促進了寺觀園林建設發(fā)展。民俗活動在寺觀日益多元，寺院園林和外圍山水環(huán)境進一步融合，寺觀園林成為重要的風景游賞地。

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties,the emperors, officials and scholars began to participate in the construction of temple gardens so that the temple gardens have been further secularized and taken on more functions. Temple gardens have been further integrated with the surrounding natural sceneries to gradually become important tourist spots and places for folk activities.?

結(jié)束語

Conclusion

　

　　中國古典園林的產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展反映了先民對理想生活空間和精神世界的向往和追求，雖由人做，宛自天開。從先秦到晚清，中國古典園林經(jīng)歷了漫長的發(fā)展歷程，以皇家園林、私家園林、寺觀園林為主體，逐漸形成了獨具特色的園林體系和異彩紛呈的地域風格，集中體現(xiàn)了中華民族“道法自然”、“天人合一”等哲學思想，以其豐富的內(nèi)涵和卓越的成就，彰顯了中國傳統(tǒng)文化的獨特魅力，在人類文明史上譜寫了一部創(chuàng)造理想家園的燦爛篇章。

　　The birth and development of classical Chinese gardens have reflected ancient Chinese people’s aspiration for an ideal living space and rich spiritual life. So comes the rule that the garden is created by the human hand, but it should appear as if created by nature. From the early stage of the Qin Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty, classical Chinese gardens have traveled a long journey to embrace a unique system mainly consisting of imperial gardens, private gardens and temple gardens. Gardens in different regions possess different styles and characteristics. Classical Chinese gardens reflect philosophical thoughts of Chinese people such as “Tao following the nature” and “harmony between man and nature”. With their rich contents and brilliant achievements, classical Chinese gardens showcased the unique charm of Chinese traditional culture and went down as a glorious chapter in mankind’s history of pursuits to build an ideal home.

----------摘自中國園林博物館中國古典園林廳?

世界園林歷史,經(jīng)歷了原始文明,農(nóng)業(yè)文明,工業(yè)文明和信息文明四大文明階段。?

　　原始文明階段?

　　人類社會的原始文明大約持續(xù)了二百多萬年.人類樹巢而居,茹毛飲血,巢穴而居,采集漁獵.人類對大自然環(huán)境的被動適應狀態(tài),在生存演化過程中,人類被動植物的形態(tài),色澤等外觀特征所吸引并有了心靈感應,賦有生命意義,有了動植物崇拜.原始文明后期,人類農(nóng)業(yè)和聚居的部落,園圃種植,鳥獸養(yǎng)殖.部落附近及房前屋屆有了果園,菜圃,畜養(yǎng)鳥獸場所.逐漸滿足了人們祭祀溫飽需要,園林得到孕育,進入萌芽狀態(tài).?

　　其園林萌芽狀態(tài)的特點為:種植,養(yǎng)殖,觀賞不分;為全體部落成員共管共享;主觀為了祭祀崇拜和解決溫飽問題,而客觀有觀賞功能.?

　　農(nóng)業(yè)文明階段?

　　距今大約1萬年前,在亞洲和非洲的一些大河沖積平原和三角洲地區(qū),農(nóng)業(yè)的長足發(fā)展,人類進入了以農(nóng)耕為主的農(nóng)業(yè)文明階段,果園,菜圃,獸場亦分化為供生產(chǎn)為主的果蔬園圃和供觀賞為主的花園,獵苑.伴隨農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)力的進一步發(fā)展,產(chǎn)生了城鎮(zhèn),國都和手工業(yè),商業(yè),使建筑技術不斷提高,為大規(guī)模興造園林提供了必要條件?

　　自然地域,文化體系演化形成世界園林體系.文化體系的主要影響因素有種族,宗教,風俗習慣,語言文字系統(tǒng),歷史地理和文化交流等,尤其以自然地域,種族,宗教文化,語言文字系統(tǒng)影響最大.?

　　世界園林體系劃分為歐洲園林體系,伊斯蘭園林體系和中國園林體系三大體系.?

　　*歐洲園林體系?

　　歐洲園林,又稱為西方園林.主要是以古埃及和古希臘園林為淵源以法國古典主義園林和英國自然風景式園林兩大流派,以人工美的規(guī)則式園林和自然美的自然式園林為造園風格,思想理論,藝術造詣精湛獨到.?

　　歐洲園林覆蓋面廣,它以歐洲本土為中心,勢力范圍囊括歐洲,北美,南美,澳大利亞等四大洲,對南非,北非,西亞,東亞等地區(qū)的園林發(fā)展和當代亦產(chǎn)生了重要影響.?

　　歐洲園林的兩大流派都有自己明顯的風格特征.規(guī)則式園林:氣勢恢宏,視線開闊,嚴謹對稱,構圖均衡,花壇,雕像,噴泉等裝飾豐富,體現(xiàn)莊重典雅,雍容華貴的氣勢.?

　　自然風景式園林取消了園林與自然之間的界線,將自然為主體引入到園林,排除人工痕跡,體現(xiàn)一種自然天成,返璞歸真的藝術.?

　　*伊斯蘭園林體系?

　　伊斯蘭園林,是以古巴比倫和古波斯園林為淵源,十字形庭園為典型布局方式,封閉建筑與特殊節(jié)水灌溉系統(tǒng)相結(jié)合,富有精美細密的建筑圖案和裝飾色彩的阿拉伯園林.?

　　伊斯蘭園林以幼發(fā)拉底,底格利斯兩河流域及美索不達米亞平原為中心,以阿拉伯世界為范圍,橫跨歐,亞,非三大洲,以印度,西班牙中世紀園林風格最為典型,對世界各國園林藝術風格的變遷有很大的影響力.?

　　伊斯蘭園林通常面積較小,建筑封閉,十字形的林陰路構成中軸線,全園分割成四區(qū).園林中心,十字形道路交匯點布設水池,象征天堂.園中溝渠明暗交替,盤式涌泉滴水,又分出幾何形小庭園,每個庭園的樹木相同.彩色陶瓷馬賽克圖案在庭園裝飾中廣泛應用.?

　　*中國園林體系?

　　中國園林尊崇與自然和諧為美的生態(tài)原則,屬于山水風景式園林范疇,以非規(guī)則式園林為基本特征,園林建筑與山水環(huán)境有機融合,自然和諧,渾然一體,涵蘊人倫教化,詩情畫意的寫意山水園林.?

　　中國大陸三面環(huán)山,一面瀕海的獨特的地理環(huán)境,長期的中央集權,禮儀制度和農(nóng)業(yè)本位文化,文明遠遠高于世界諸國文化,以泱泱大國自居,小視四方,中國園林自誕生以后,在自己特殊的國情和歷史文化背景下自我發(fā)展.從其獨到的創(chuàng)世紀說到三代時期的囿,秦漢時期的苑,魏晉六朝的自然山水園林,唐宋時代的全景式寫意山水園林,最后達到明清時代濃縮自然山水,以小見大的高度象征性寫意園林階段.從明朝中期始,私家園林逐漸分化,先有江南園林脫穎而出,北方園林接踵其后,嶺南園林增其華麗.三大區(qū)域園林相互影響,相互兼容,使中國園林的類型和風格不斷拓展與深化,中國園林不像歐洲園林那樣,風格劇烈復合變異,而是不斷傳承發(fā)展,以東方獨有的文化及造園思想理論甚至影響西方.?

　　中國園林特點主要有:?

　　1).本于自然,高于自然 自然風景以山,水為地貌基礎,山,水,植物乃是構成自然風景的基本要素,中國園林絕非一般地利用或者簡單地模仿這些構景要素的原始狀態(tài),而是有意識地加以改造,調(diào)整,加工,剪裁,從而表現(xiàn)一個精練概括的自然,典型化的自然.惟其如此,本于自然而又高于自然并倫理化,道德化,園林要素與之結(jié)合意蘊其中,尤為突出.?

　　2).建筑美與自然美有機融合——與自然和諧為美 中國園林建立在尊重自然的基礎之上,"陰陽五行說"被譽為世界最早的生態(tài)學,建筑能夠把地域自然與山,水,花木,鳥獸等造園要素有機地組織在一系列風景畫面之中.突出彼此諧調(diào),互相補充的積極的一面,限制彼此對立,互相排斥的消極的一面.把后者轉(zhuǎn)化為前者,中軸對稱的規(guī)整式構圖于宮室寺觀建筑,卻天工人巧,為中國園林建筑的特殊形式.在園林總體上達到一種人工與自然高度和諧的 "天人合一"與"自然和諧為美"的哲理境界.?

　　3)中國園林漾漾充溢著詩情畫意;擁有著獨具魅力的意境創(chuàng)造?

　　中國園林影響了漢文化體系,也深深影響了日本.?

　　佛教從我國傳入日本,特別是漢化的禪宗傳入日本后,與日本特色的神道教融合,形成了日本特色:追求精神上"凈,空,無"的禪文化,成為突破中國園林形式的切人點.日本早期"枯山水,除選用砂,石之外,還含有小塊地被植物或小型灌木,如修剪整齊的黃楊,杜鵑等.后期的"枯山水園"竭盡其簡潔,純凈,無樹無花,只有幾尊自然天成的石塊,滿園耙出紋理的細砂,凝聚成一方禪宗凈土."茶室庭園"則顯示出極精致,極正式的氛圍,中國的茶文化在日本發(fā)展為"茶道",庭園布設精美的石制藝術品,主人石,客人石,刀掛石,石燈籠,石水缽等,逼真磊落,不帶一點世俗塵埃,表達了日本人對"純凈,空寂,無極"境界的追求.?

　　縱觀日本園林的歷史演進,日本園林受中國園林影響至遠至深,盡管在某些方面有獨特的造詣,甚至反過來影響中國園林,但它最終并沒有脫離中國園林體系.?

　　工業(yè)文明階段?

　　無?

　　信息文明階段?

　　促進了公共園林,公共綠地,城市與生態(tài)景觀的藝術發(fā)展,促進了人類任何"工程"與自然生存環(huán)境景觀活動的藝術思考.?

　　文化多元化,全球一體化的當代,人類環(huán)境建設與賴以生存的自然生態(tài)環(huán)境理論思考,保護自然環(huán)境,維護生態(tài)平衡為核心的可持續(xù)發(fā)展理論深入人心.?

　　造園時代：?

　　歐美國家在18世紀中葉以前手工業(yè)時期，只有供皇帝使用的獵苑(Hunting Park)(相當于中國周文王之囿)、皇家營苑、王子或貴族的城堡園林、貴族的別墅(Villa)，園林、寺廟園林、富裕階層...?

　　風景造園時期(Landscape Gardening)?

　　18世紀中葉，歐洲發(fā)生工業(yè)革命，接著出現(xiàn)了城市化，城市居民厭倦了那種精雕細刻、修剪整形、中軸對稱、了無生趣...?

　　在工業(yè)革命與城市化以后，西方園林學科的發(fā)展?

　　奧姆斯特德與Landscape Architecture?

　　美國伯克利加州大學的環(huán)境規(guī)劃設計學院勞萊教授(Prof．M．Laurie)在其著作《An Intrnduetion To Land-scape Architecture?

　　國際風景園林師聯(lián)合會(IFLA)與Landscape Architecture?

　　美國是世界上工業(yè)化發(fā)展最快的國家，早在1789年，華盛頓當選為第一任總統(tǒng)，他雖然是在紐約宣誓就職的，但他深感美國的特...?

　　國際大地規(guī)劃教育學術會議與Landscape Planning?

　　1986年3月，在美國哈佛大學設計研究生院舉辦的國際大地規(guī)劃教育學術會議(World Conference。n Education For Landscape Planning)明確闡述了關于Landscape Planning學科的含義：?

　　在歐洲工業(yè)革命以前，中國造園藝術的發(fā)展?

　　中國古典園林藝術以及"人與大地"關系的古典哲學是人類文化的典范?

　　國際大地規(guī)劃與風景園林規(guī)劃設計師聯(lián)合會(IFLA)的第一任會長和終生名譽會長英國杰列科爵士(SirG．A Jellicoe)曾經(jīng)在1985／861FLA年報發(fā)表論文《伊甸園的探索》?

　　中國是世界上最早在國都中心建設大園林的國家?

　　全世界的文明古國，除了中國以外，從埃及、巴比倫、希臘、印度到羅馬帝國，在城市中心，一般都是沒有園林的...?

　　中國的杭州與西湖是全世界最早、最美的園林城市(Garden City)?

　　園林城市(Garden City)是令人類人居環(huán)境（ekistics)的最高理想。Garden City這個名詞，是由西方人提出來的。?

　　中國是世界上最早用"大自然’為原型進行園林創(chuàng)作的國家?

　　世界上最早的園林設計，不但埃及、巴比倫、希臘是整形幾何式的，中國也不例外是整形幾何式的。?

　　中國是世界上最早出現(xiàn)"造園’這個行業(yè)、專業(yè)和 學科的國家?

　　羅馬帝國到公元117年，達到全盛時期，哈德良大帝才開始在城市郊區(qū)修建了哈德良山莊。?

　　景觀規(guī)劃思想發(fā)展史?

　　公元前三千多年——地中海東部沿岸古埃及產(chǎn)生世界上最早的規(guī)則式園林?

　　公元前五百年——古希臘的雅典城邦及羅馬別墅園宅園?

　　公元七世紀——阿拉伯人建立的伊斯蘭大帝國?

　　公元十四世紀——伊斯蘭園林的鼎盛 印度莫臥兒園林?

　　公元十五世紀——歐洲西南端的伊比利亞半島?

　　公元十五世紀后期——歐洲意大利半島的理水方式和園林小品的產(chǎn)生?

　　公元十七世紀——法國的中軸線對稱規(guī)整的園林布局?

　　公元十七世紀末——法國盡量運用一切文化藝術手段來宣揚君威?

　　公元十八世紀初期——英國的風景式園林的盛行?

　　公元十八、十九世紀——靳諾特風格和英國風格的平行發(fā)展?

　　公元十九世紀中葉——植物研究成為專門的學科，大量花卉開始在經(jīng)景觀中運用?

　　公元十九世紀后期——大工業(yè)的發(fā)展，郊野地區(qū)開始興建別墅園林?

　　二十世紀以來（一戰(zhàn)以后）——現(xiàn)代流派的迭興 產(chǎn)生了現(xiàn)代園林?

　　公元前三千多年——地中海東部沿岸古埃及產(chǎn)生世界上最早的規(guī)則式園林?

　　地中海東部沿岸地區(qū)是西方文明發(fā)展的搖籃。公元三千多年，古埃及在北非建立奴隸制國家。尼羅河沃土沖積，適宜于農(nóng)業(yè)耕作，但國土的其余部分都是沙漠地帶。對于沙漠居民來說，在一片炎熱荒漠的環(huán)境里有水和遮蔭樹木的“綠洲”作為模擬的對象。尼羅河每年泛濫，退水之后需要丈量土地，因而發(fā)明了幾何學。于是，古埃及人也把幾何的概念用之于園林設計。水池和水渠的形狀方整規(guī)則，房屋和樹木佾都按幾何形狀加以安排，是為世界上最早的規(guī)整式園林設計。?

　　公元前五百年——古希臘的雅典城邦及羅馬別墅園宅園?

　　1.古希臘的雅典城邦?

　　古希臘由許多奴隸制的城邦國家組成。公元前五百年，以雅典城邦為代表的完善的自由民主政治帶來了文化、科學、藝術的空前繁榮，園林的建設也很興盛。古希臘園林大體上可以分為三類：第一類是供公共活動瀏覽的園林：早先原為體育競技場，后來，為了遮蔭而種植的大片樹叢逐漸開辟為林蔭道，為了灌溉而引來的水渠逐漸形成裝飾性的水景。到處陳列著體育競賽優(yōu)勝者的大理石雕像，林蔭下設置坐椅。人們不僅來此觀看體育活動，也可以散步、閑談和游覽。政治學家在這里發(fā)表演說，哲學家在這里辯論，為此而修建專用的廳堂，另外還有音樂演奏臺以及其他公共活動設施。但這種頗似與現(xiàn)代“文化休息公園”的公共園林存在的時間并不長，隨著古希臘民主政體的衰亡而逐漸消失。第二類是城市的住宅，四周以柱廊圍繞成庭院，庭院中散置水池和花木。第三類是寺廟園林即以神廟為主體的園林風景區(qū)，例如德爾菲圣山（ The Mountaiin Sanctuary of Delphi ）。?

　　2.羅馬別墅花園?

　　羅馬繼承古希臘的傳統(tǒng)而著重發(fā)展了別墅園（ Villa Garden ）和宅園這兩類，別墅園的修建在郊外和城內(nèi)的丘陵地帶，包括居住房屋、水渠、水池、草地和樹林。當時的一位官員和著作家的 Pliny 對此曾有過生動的描寫：“別墅園林之所以怡人心神，在于那些爬滿常春藤的柱廊和人工栽植的樹叢；晶瑩的水渠兩岸綴以花壇，上下交相輝映。確實美不勝收。還有柔媚的林蔭道、敞露在陽光下的潔池、華麗的客廳、精制的餐室和臥室 ……. 這些都為人們在中午和晚上提供了愉快安謐的場所。龐貝（ pompei ）古城內(nèi)保存著的許多宅園遺址一般均為四合庭院的形式，一面是正廳，其余三面環(huán)以游廊，在游廊的墻壁上畫上樹木、噴泉、花鳥以及遠景等的壁畫，造成一種擴大空間的感覺。?

　　公元七世紀——阿拉伯人建立的伊斯蘭大帝國（412—1998）?

　　公元七世紀，阿拉伯人征服了東起印度河西到伊比利亞半島的廣大地帶，建立一個橫跨亞、非、拉三大洲的伊斯蘭大帝國，雖然后來分裂成許多小國，，但由于伊斯蘭教教義的約束，在這個廣大的地區(qū)內(nèi)仍然保持著伊斯蘭文化的共同特點。阿拉伯人早先原是沙漠上的游牧民族，祖先逐水草而居的帳幕生涯，對“綠洲”和水的特殊感情在園林藝術上有著深刻的反映；另一方面又受到古埃及的影響從而形成了阿拉伯園林的獨特風格；以水池或水渠為中心，水經(jīng)常處于流動的狀態(tài)，發(fā)出輕微悅耳的聲音。建筑物大半通透開暢，園林景觀具有一定幽靜的氣氛。?

　　公元十四世紀——伊斯蘭園林的鼎盛 印度莫臥兒園林?

　　公元十四世紀是伊斯蘭園林的鼎盛時期。此后，在東方演變?yōu)橛《鹊哪P兒的兩種形式：一種是以水渠、草地、樹林、花壇和花池為主體而成對稱均齊的布置，建筑居于次要的地位。另一種則突出建筑的形象，中央為殿堂，圍墻的四周有角樓，所有的水池、水渠、花木和道路均按幾何對稱的關系來安排。著名的泰姬陵即屬后者的代表。?

　　公元十五世紀——歐洲西南端的伊比利亞半島（412—1998）?

　　歐洲西南端的伊比利亞半島上的幾個伊斯蘭王國直到十五世紀才被西班牙的天主教政權統(tǒng)一。由于地理環(huán)境和長期的安定局面，園林藝術得以持續(xù)的發(fā)展伊斯蘭傳統(tǒng)并吸收羅馬的若干特點而融冶與一爐。格拉那達的阿爾罕伯宮即為典型的例子。這座由許多院落組成的宮苑都位于地勢險要的山上，建筑物除居住用房外大部分馬蹄形券洞甚至可以看到苑外的群峰。再加上穿插引流的水渠和水池，整座宮殿充滿了“綠洲”的情調(diào)。宮內(nèi)園林以庭院為主，采取羅馬宅院四合庭院的形式，其中最精彩的是拓溜園（Ｃ out of Myriles ）和獅子院（ Court of Lions ）。拓溜園的中庭縱橫一個長方形水池，兩旁是修剪得很整齊的拓榴樹籬。水池中搖曳著馬蹄形券廊的倒影，顯示一派安詳?shù)陌仓k親切的氣氛。方整寧靜的水面與暗綠色的樹籬對比著精致繁榮，色彩明亮的建筑雕塑，又予人一種生機勃勃的感受。獅子院四周均為馬蹄形券廊，縱橫兩條水渠貫穿全院，水渠的交匯處即庭院的中央有一個的噴泉，它的基座上雕刻著十二個大理石獅像（伊斯蘭教的教規(guī)禁止以動物作裝飾題材，這十二個獅像是后來加上去的）。阿爾罕伯拉宮的這種理水手法給予后來的法國園林以一定程度的啟示。?

　　公元十五世紀后期——歐洲意大利半島的理水方式和園林小品的產(chǎn)生?

　　十五世紀是歐洲商業(yè)資本的上升期，意大利出現(xiàn)了許多以城市為中心的商業(yè)城邦。政治上的安定和經(jīng)濟上繁榮必然帶來文化的發(fā)展。人們的思想從中世紀宗教中解脫出來，擺脫了上帝的禁錮，充分意識到自己的能力和創(chuàng)造力?！叭诵缘慕夥拧苯Y(jié)合對古希臘羅馬燦爛文化的重新認識，從而開創(chuàng)了意大利“文藝復興”的高潮，園林藝術也是這個文化高潮里面的一部分。?

　　意大利半島三面瀕海而多山地，氣候溫和，陽光明媚。積累了大量財富的貴族、大主教、商業(yè)資本家們再城市修建華麗的住宅，也在郊外經(jīng)營別墅作為休閑的場所，別墅園遂成為意大利文藝復興園林中的最具代表性的一種類型。別墅園林多半建立在山坡地段上，就坡勢而作成若干的臺地，即所謂的臺地園。園林的規(guī)劃設計一般都由建筑師擔任，因而運用了許多古典建筑的設計手法。主要建筑物通常位于山坡地段的最高處，在它的前面沿山坡而引出的一條中軸線上開辟一層層的臺地，分別配置保坎、平臺、花壇、水池、噴泉、雕像。各層臺地之間以蹬道相聯(lián)系。中軸線兩旁栽植高聳的絲杉、黃楊、石松等樹叢作為園林本生與周圍自然環(huán)境的過度。站在臺地上順著中軸線的縱深方向眺望，可以收攝到無限深遠的園外借景。這是規(guī)整式與風景式相結(jié)合而以前者為主的一種園林形式。?

　　理水的手法遠較過去豐富。每與高處匯聚水源作貯水池，然后順坡勢往下引注成為水瀑，平瀨或流水梯（ W ater Stair ） ， 在下層臺地則利用水落差的壓力作出各式噴泉，最低一層平臺地上又匯聚為水池。此外，常有欣賞流水落差的壓力作出各式噴泉，最低一層臺地上又匯聚為水池。此外。常有為欣賞流水聲音而設的裝置，甚至有意識地利用激水之聲構成音樂的旋律（Ｗ ater Organ ） .?

　　作為裝飾點綴的“園林小品”也極其多樣，那些雕鏤精致的石欄桿、石壇罐、?？病⒈懸约盀閿?shù)眾多的、以古典神話為題材的大理石雕像，它們本身的光亮晶瑩襯托著暗綠色的樹叢，與碧水藍天相掩映，產(chǎn)生一種生動而強烈的色彩和質(zhì)感的對比。?

　　意大利文藝復興式園林中還出現(xiàn)一種新的造園手法——繡毯式的植壇 (Parterre) 既在一塊大面積的平地上利用灌木花草的栽植鑲嵌組合成各種紋樣圖案，好象鋪在地上的地毯。?

　　公元十七世紀——法國的中軸線對稱規(guī)整的園林布局?

　　十七世紀，意大利文藝復興式園林傳入法國。法國多平原，有大片天然植被和大量的河流湖泊。法國人并沒有完全接受臺地園的形式，而是把中軸線對稱均齊的整齊式的園林布局手法運用于平地造園。?

　　公元十七世紀末——法國盡量運用一切文化藝術手段來宣揚君威?

　　十七世紀末，歐洲資本主義的原始積累加速進行著，君主專制政權成了資產(chǎn)階級和就貴族共同鎮(zhèn)壓農(nóng)民和城市平民的國家機器。法國在當時已經(jīng)是世界上最強大的中央集權的君主國家，國王路易十四建立了一個絕對君權的中央政府，盡量運用一切文化藝術手段來宣揚君主的權威。宮殿和園林作為藝術創(chuàng)作當然也不例外，巴黎近郊的凡爾塞宮（Versallei) 就是一個典型的例子。?

　　凡爾塞宮占地極廣，大約有六百余公頃。是路易十四仿照財政大臣副開的圍攻園，的樣式而建成的，包括“宮”和“苑”兩部分。廣大的苑林區(qū)在宮殿建筑的西面，由著名的造園家靳諾特（ Andri Le Notre ）設計規(guī)劃。它有一條自宮殿中央往西延伸長達二公里的中軸線，兩側(cè)大片的樹林把中軸線襯托成為一條寬闊的林蔭大道，自西向東一直消逝在無垠的天際。林蔭大道的設計分為東西兩段：西段以水景為主，包括十字型的大水渠和阿波羅水池，飾以大理石雕像和噴泉。十字水渠橫碧的北段為別墅園“大特里阿農(nóng)” (Grand Trianon)， 南端為動物飼養(yǎng)園。東端的開闊平地上則是左右對稱布置的幾組大型的“繡毯式植壇”。大林蔭道兩側(cè)的樹林隱藏地布列著一些洞府、水景劇場（ Water Theatre ）迷宮、小型別墅等，是比較安靜的就近觀賞的場所。樹林里還開辟出許多筆直交叉的小林蔭路，它們的盡端都有對景，因此形成一系列的視景線 (Vista) ，故此種園林又叫做視景園 (Vista Garden). 。中央大林蔭道上的水池、噴泉、臺階、保坎、雕像等建筑小品以及植壇、綠籬均嚴格按對稱均齊的幾何格式布局，是為規(guī)整式園林的典范，較之意大利文藝復興園林更明顯的反映了有組織有秩序的古典主義原則。它所顯示的恢弘的氣概和雍容華貴的景觀也遠非前者所能比擬。?

　　公元十八世紀初期——英國的風景式園林的盛行?

　　英倫三島多起伏的丘陵，十七、八世紀時由于毛紡工業(yè)的發(fā)展而開辟了許多牧羊的草場。如茵的草地、森林、樹叢與丘陵地貌相結(jié)合，構成了英國天然風致的特殊景觀。這種優(yōu)美的自然景觀促進了風景畫和田園詩的興盛。而風景畫和浪漫派詩人對大自然的縱情謳歌又使得英國人對天然風致之美產(chǎn)生了深厚的感情。這種思潮當然會波及園林藝術，于是封閉的“城堡園林”和規(guī)整嚴謹?shù)摹敖Z特式”園林逐漸被人們所厭棄而促使他們?nèi)ヌ剿髁硪环N近乎自然，反樸歸真的新的園林風格——風景式園林。?

　　英國的風景式園林興起于十八世紀初期。與靳諾特式的園林完全相反，它否定了紋樣植壇、筆直的林蔭道、方正的水池、整形的樹木。揚棄了一切幾何形狀和對稱均齊的布局，代之以彎曲的道路、自然式的樹叢和草地、蜿蜒的河流，講究借景和與園外的自然環(huán)境相融合。為了徹底消除園內(nèi)景觀景觀界限，英國人想出一個辦法，把園墻修筑在深溝之中即所謂“沉墻”。當這種造園風格盛行的時候，英國過去的許多出色的文藝復興和靳諾特式園林都被平毀而改造成為風景式的園林。?

??? 風景式園林比規(guī)整式園林，在園林與天然風致相結(jié)合，突出自然景觀方面有其獨特的成就。但物極必反，卻又逐漸走向另一個完全極端即完全以自然風景或者風景畫作為抄襲的藍本，以至于經(jīng)營園林雖然耗費了大量的人力和資金，而所得到的效果與原始的天然風致并沒有什么區(qū)別?？床坏蕉嗌偃藶榧庸さ狞c染，雖本與自然但未必高與于自然。這種情況也引起了人們的反感。因此，從造園家列普頓 (Humphry Replom) 開始又使用臺地、綠籬、人工理水、植物整形修剪以及日冕、鳥舍、雕像等的建筑小品；特別注意樹的外形與與建筑形象的配合襯托以及虛實、色彩、明暗的比例關系。甚至有在園林中故意設置廢墟、殘碑、斷蝎、朽橋、枯樹以渲染一種浪漫的情調(diào)，這就是所謂的“浪漫派”園林。?

　　這時候，通過在中國的耶蘇會傳教士致羅馬教廷的通訊，以圓明園為代表的中國園林藝術被介紹到歐洲。英國皇家建筑師張伯斯 (William Chambers) 兩度游歷中國，歸來后著文盛談中國園林并在他所設計的丘園 (Kew Garden) 中首次運用所謂“中國式”的手法，雖然不過是一些膚淺和不倫不類的點綴，終于也形成一個流派，法國人稱之為“中英式”園林，在歐洲曾經(jīng)盛行一時 。?

　　公元十八、十九世紀——靳諾特風格和英國風格的平行發(fā)展?

　　十八、十九世紀的西方園林可以說時靳諾特風格和英國風格這兩大主流的并行發(fā)展、互為消長的時期，當然也產(chǎn)生出許多混合型的變體。?

　　公元十九世紀中葉——植物研究成為專門的學科，大量花卉開始在景觀中運用?

　　十九世紀中葉，歐洲人從海外大量引進樹木和花卉的新品種而加以馴化，觀賞植物的研究遂成為一門專門的學科?；ɑ茉趫@林中的地位愈來愈重要，很講究花卉的形態(tài)、色彩、香味、花期和栽植方式。造園大量使用了花壇，并且出現(xiàn)了以花卉配置為主要內(nèi)容的“花園”乃至以某一種花卉為主題的花園如玫瑰園、百合等。?

　　公元十九世紀后期——大工業(yè)的發(fā)展，郊野地區(qū)開始興建別墅園林?

　　十九世紀后期，由于大工業(yè)的發(fā)展，許多資本主義國家的城市日愈膨脹、人口愈集中，大城市開始出現(xiàn)居住條件明顯兩極分化的現(xiàn)象。勞動人民聚居的“貧民窟”(Slum)環(huán)境污穢，嘈雜。即使在市政府設施完善的資產(chǎn)階級住宅區(qū)也由于地價昂貴，經(jīng)營宅園不易。資產(chǎn)階級紛紛遠離城市尋找清凈的環(huán)境，加之以現(xiàn)代交通工具發(fā)達，百十里之遙朝發(fā)夕至。于是，在郊野地區(qū)興建別墅園林成為一時風尚，十九世紀末到二十世紀是這類園林最為興盛的時期。?

　　當時的許多學者已經(jīng)看到城市建筑過于稠密和擁擠所造成的后果特別是終年居住在貧民窟里面的工人階級迫切需要優(yōu)美的園林環(huán)境作為生活的調(diào)劑。因此，在提出種種城市規(guī)劃的理論和方案設想的同時也考慮到園林綠化的問題。其中霍華德（ E.Howard ）倡導的“花園城”不僅是很有代表性的一種理論，而且在英國、美國都有若干實踐的例子但并未得到推廣。至于其他形形色色的學說則大都是資本主義制度下不易實現(xiàn)的空想。另一方面，在資產(chǎn)階級居住區(qū)卻也相應出現(xiàn)了一些新的園林類型：比較早的如象倫敦花園廣場；稍后，納許將公園納入住宅區(qū)的規(guī)劃中。?

　　二十世紀以來（一戰(zhàn)以后）——現(xiàn)代流派的迭興 產(chǎn)生了現(xiàn)代園林?

　　第一次世界大站以后，造型藝術和建筑藝術中的各種現(xiàn)代流派迭興，園林也受到他們的潛移默化。把現(xiàn)代藝術和現(xiàn)代建筑的構圖則運用于造園設計，好象靳諾特式園林之運用古典主義建筑的原則一樣，從而形成一種新型風格的“現(xiàn)代園林”。這種園林的規(guī)劃講究自由布局和空間的穿插，建筑、水、山和植物講究體形、質(zhì)地、色彩的抽象構圖，并且還吸收了日本庭園的某些意匠和手法。現(xiàn)代園林隨著現(xiàn)代建筑和造園技術的發(fā)達而風行于全世界，至今仍方興未艾。